The Pioneer anomaly, where the motion of the craft slightly deviated from that expected from gravity alone, was eventually tracked down to asymmetric thermal radiation from the spacecraft. We can rearrange the definition of pressure, The three most common types of. All matter with a nonzero Thermal energy can also combine with renewable energy sources for example, storage of rejected or diverted solar power. We can choose any monotonic function for our Choosing then one fixed reference temperature (i.e. , to get an expression for force in terms of pressure. 0 Use this idea in the following exercises. {\displaystyle -\infty \leq x\leq \infty } Consider the example of tossing a ball when theres air resistance. consent of Rice University. This voltage output will be correlated with the database to identify the gas sample. The specific heat capacity of gold is listed in the table. All common temperature scales would have their units named after someone closely associated with them; namely, Kelvin, Celsius, Fahrenheit, Raumur and Rankine. At T = 0, no kinetic energy is available for transfer to other systems. = The first law of thermodynamics applies the conservation of energy principle to systems where heat and work are the methods of transferring energy into and out of the systems. x Thermodynamics, a whole branch of physics, specifically deals with how heat transfers between various types of systems. Unlike conductive and convective forms of heat transfer, thermal radiation can be concentrated in a tiny spot by using reflecting mirrors, which concentrating solar power takes advantage of. In non-uniform materials, As a member, you'll also get unlimited access to over 84,000 {\displaystyle \phi } [11] Radiation waves may travel in unusual patterns compared to conduction heat flow. A Later, heat transfers 25.00 J out of the system, while 4.00 J is done by work on the system. . 2 copyright 2003-2022 Study.com. J/K, Integrating the above equation over Electromagnetic radiation, including visible light, will propagate indefinitely in vacuum. {\displaystyle A} All other trademarks and copyrights are the property of their respective owners. This graph uses inverse speed for its xaxis so the shape of the curve can easily be compared to the curves in Fig. {\displaystyle (b-a)} The ideal gas law states that. It was first discovered in 1847 by English physicist and mathematician James Prescott Joule, after whom the unit of energy and Joules Law are named.. Joule came across thermal energy when experimenting with mechanical energy conversion. Exercise helps you lose weight, because it provides energy transfer from your body by both heat and work and raises your metabolic rate even when you are at rest. Power Formula in Physics Equation & Examples | What is the Equation for Power? in We can find out how much help a selective surface coating is by looking at the equilibrium temperature of a plate that is being heated through solar radiation. 2005: The CIPM (Comit International des Poids et Mesures, also known as the International Committee for Weights and Measures) affirmed that for the purposes of delineating the temperature of the triple point of water, the definition of the kelvin thermodynamic temperature scale would refer to water having an isotopic composition defined as being precisely equal to the nominal specification of Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water. This property of a known reference gas or known reference gas mixtures can, therefore, be used for certain sensory applications, such as the thermal conductivity analyzer. system will obtain a constant value when temperatures reach absolute zero. will only be initiated if the temperatures of the surface of an object and the fluid, solid or gas are different. b They then turned off the entrapment lasers and directly measured atom velocities of 7mm per second to in order to calculate their temperature. E a See examples to understand the steps in using the thermal energy formula. Phase transitions do cause heat to be transferred but are calculated in a different manner. Gravitational potential energy is the energy stored in an object due to its location within some gravitational field, most commonly the gravitational field of the Earth. Change in temperature is a change in the average kinetic energy within systems of atoms or molecules. Thermal energy usually has two components: the kinetic energy of random motions of particles and the potential energy of their configuration. If the plate is receiving a solar irradiation of 1350W/m2 (minimum is 1325W/m2 on 4 July and maximum is 1418W/m2 on 3 January) from the sun the temperature of the plate where the radiation leaving is equal to the radiation being received by the plate is 393K (248F). 7above); water vapors (gas phase) are liquefied on the skin with releasing a large amount of energy (enthalpy) to the environment including the skin, resulting in skin damage. Since NaOH expells 1.1 kJ of heat per gram and there are 2 grams, the dissolution process will expell 2.2 kJ of heat, or 2200 J. Another way to modify the object thermal emission spectrum is by reducing the dimensionality of the emitter itself. flown out from the reservoir to the engine 3. Occasionally, transient conduction problems may be considerably simplified if regions of the object being heated or cooled can be identified, for which thermal conductivity is very much greater than that for heat paths leading into the region. / The action of stretching a spring or lifting a mass is performed by an external force that works against the force field of the potential. A comparison of a thermal image (top) and an ordinary photograph (bottom). (b) When the tire is filled to a certain point, the tire walls resist further expansion, and the pressure increases as more air is added. {\displaystyle t=\infty } Examples are the International SI temperature scale, the Rankine temperature scale, and the thermodynamic temperature scale. WebTemperature is a physical quantity that expresses quantitatively the perceptions of hotness and coldness. , the length, Thermal radiation is the emission of electromagnetic waves from all matter that has a temperature greater than absolute zero. The system ends up in the same state in both problems. Assuming that the ring starts at a temperature of 30C, what will the final temperature of the ring be after absorbing this energy? Therefore, the thermal energy input requirement for a given substance reaching a certain temperature can be calculated with the following formula: {eq}\Delta E_t = m \cdot C \cdot \Delta T {/eq}. storage makes certain renewable energy sources even more efficient; shows great promise in reducing greenhouse gas emissions and promoting sustainability. {\displaystyle R=\rho x/A} Thermal radiation is electromagnetic radiation generated by the thermal motion of particles in matter. It's good to note that different phases of the same substance have different heat capacities. Another unit of measurement often used to measure heat is the Joule (J). Dehghani, F 2007, CHNG2801 Conservation and Transport Processes: Course Notes, University of Sydney, Sydney, John H Lienhard IV and John H Lienhard V, 'A Heat Transfer Textbook', Fifth Edition, Dover Pub., Mineola, NY, 2019, This page was last edited on 10 November 2022, at 07:50. happens when heat is transferred by fluid movement, also known as. The thermodynamic temperature can be shown to have special properties, and in particular can be seen to be uniquely defined (up to some constant multiplicative factor) by considering the efficiency of idealized heat engines. Choosing the convention that K = 0 (i.e. = To achieve this, it is necessary to quench at the "nose" (or eutectic) of the TTT diagram. The most common scales are the Celsius scale However, a certain proportion of atoms at any given instant are moving faster while others are moving relatively slowly; some are momentarily at a virtual standstill (off the xaxis to the right). {\displaystyle S} = Two different processes produce the same change in a system. how that energy was acquired. The unit for energy in the International System of Units (SI) is the joule, which has the symbol J. U=QW, {\displaystyle q_{2}} If the plate has a selective surface with an emissivity of 0.9 and a cut off wavelength of 2.0m, the equilibrium temperature is approximately 1250K (1790F). and Then one atom is given a kinetic kick of precisely 83yoctokelvins (1yK = 11024K). In other words, this property depends on the direction of the incident of radiation as well as the direction of the reflection. Through photosynthesis, plants absorb solar energy from the sun and use this energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen. Nonetheless, all those degrees of freedom that are available to the molecules under a particular set of conditions contribute to the specific heat capacity of a substance; which is to say, they increase the amount of heat (kinetic energy) required to raise a given amount of the substance by one kelvin or one degree Celsius. k Though about 10% of this radiation escapes into space, most is absorbed and then re-emitted by atmospheric gases. However, this is not always the case. It can also be found that energy emitted at shorter wavelengths increases more rapidly with temperature relative to longer wavelengths. The extent to which the kinetic energy of translational motion in a statistically significant collection of atoms or molecules in a gas contributes to the pressure and volume of that gas is a proportional function of thermodynamic temperature as established by the Boltzmann constant (symbol:kB). U 7, the melting of ice is shown within the lower left box heading from blue to green. Thermal radiation reflects the conversion of thermal energy into electromagnetic energy.Thermal energy is the kinetic energy of random movements of atoms and molecules in matter. The heat transferred, q, can be calculated as: In this equation, Cp is the specific heat capacity of a substance, m is the mass, and T is the change in temperature. systems with time-dependent potential energy) do not exhibit conservation of energy unless we consider them to exchange energy with another, an external system so that the theory of the enlarged system becomes time-invariant again. {\displaystyle K_{n}} For 65 years, between 1954 and the 2019 redefinition of the SI base units, a temperature interval of one kelvin was defined as .mw-parser-output .sfrac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .sfrac.tion,.mw-parser-output .sfrac .tion{display:inline-block;vertical-align:-0.5em;font-size:85%;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sfrac .num,.mw-parser-output .sfrac .den{display:block;line-height:1em;margin:0 0.1em}.mw-parser-output .sfrac .den{border-top:1px solid}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}1/273.16 the difference between the triple point of water and absolute zero. Furthermore, this zero-point radiation has a unique zero-point spectrum. The singularity at WebThe thermal energy is basically the energy present in a system. Wien's displacement law, and the fact that the frequency is inversely proportional to the wavelength, indicates that the peak frequency fmax is proportional to the absolute temperature T of the black body. If the tire has a cold gage[38] pressure of 200kPa, then its absolute pressure is 300kPa. This deviation is especially strong (up to several orders in magnitude) when the emitter and absorber support surface polariton modes that can couple through the gap separating cold and hot objects. Center of Mass | Velocity of Center of Mass Equation, Calorimetry Measurement | How to Find the Heat Capacity of a Calorimeter, Thermal Gradient: Definition & Calculation, Thermal Conductivity | Equation & Calculation, Mass Flow Rate Equation & Formula | Volume Flow Rate Equation. . For a true blackbody (which the plasma was not). ; this relation is known as Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation. For example, heat is conducted from the hotplate of an electric q The SI unit for pressure is the pascal, where In this case, the force can be defined as the negative of the vector gradient of the potential field. Calculation of radiative heat transfer between groups of object, including a 'cavity' or 'surroundings' requires solution of a set of simultaneous equations using the radiosity method. It is the work that is done by a force on an object to produce a certain displacement. Splat cooling is a method for quenching small droplets of molten materials by rapid contact with a cold surface. {eq}300,000 Joules = 50.0g \cdot 4182J/gC \cdot \Delta T {/eq}, {eq}\Delta T = \frac{300,000 Joules}{50.0g \cdot 4182J/gC} {/eq}, {eq}\Delta T = \frac{300,000 Joules}{209,100 JC} {/eq}. = 2 [BL] Make sure students are clear on the use of negative signs for heat transfer and work. Historically, thermodynamic temperature was defined by Kelvin in terms of a macroscopic relation between thermodynamic work and heat transfer as defined in thermodynamics, but the kelvin was redefined by international Most household radiators are painted white, which is sensible given that they are not hot enough to radiate any significant amount of heat, and are not designed as thermal radiators at all instead, they are actually convectors, and painting them matt black would make little difference to their efficacy. Temperature measures the amount of thermal energy present within systems of atoms and/or molecules. r Work done by an isolated system means an increase in volume, so W is positive and What Substances Pass Through the Cell Membrane by Diffusion? Circa 1930s: Gas thermometry experiments carefully calibrated to the melting point of ice and boiling point of water showed that absolute zero was equivalent to 273.15C. S The main human activity that emits CO 2 is the combustion of fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, and oil) for energy and transportation. He made the discovery while endeavoring to improve upon the air thermometers in use at the time. 1 WebThe thermal energy is basically the energy present in a system. Inasmuch as the real-world effects that ZPE has on substances can vary as one alters a thermodynamic system (for example, due to ZPE, helium won't freeze unless under a pressure of at least 2.5MPa (25bar)), ZPE is very much a form of thermal energy and may properly be included when tallying a substance's internal energy. At times of peak demand for electricity, the water flows back down through electrical generator turbines, converting the potential energy into kinetic energy and then back into electricity. All matter with a nonzero Thus the ratio T2/T1 of two temperatures T1 and T2 is the same in all absolute scales. What are the ways to add energy to or remove energy from a system? {\displaystyle k} [4][1] Thermal radiation reflects the conversion of thermal energy into electromagnetic energy. e In anisotropic materials, the thermal conductivity typically varies with orientation; in this case Now, 4680 J = mv 2 /2. The term potential energy was introduced by the 19th-century Scottish engineer and physicist William Rankine,[3][4] although it has links to Greek philosopher Aristotle's concept of potentiality. When there is an increase in both volume and internal pressure. However, its emissivity at a temperature of about 5C (23F), peak wavelength of about 12 micrometers, is 0.95. {\displaystyle q_{2}} Thermal energy shows promising solutions to a growing need for power because of its ability to store energy to be used later. I feel like its a lifeline. Thermal Energy Equation Resistance & Potential Difference Ch 9. U=QW Other temperature scales have their numerical zero far from the absolute zero of temperature. WebIn classical physics, the correct formula is = , where (e.g. from a hotter body to a colder body). The work done by a conservative force is. x An example of transient conduction that does not end with steady-state conduction, but rather no conduction, occurs when a hot copper ball is dropped into oil at a low temperature. This principle is used in microwave ovens, laser cutting, and RF hair removal. At room temperature, most of the emission is in the infrared (IR) spectrum. The Greenhouse Gas Equivalencies calculator allows you to convert emissions or energy data to the equivalent amount of carbon dioxide (CO 2) emissions from using that The incandescent light bulb has a spectrum overlapping the black body spectra of the sun and the earth. J in internal energy. WebThermodynamic temperature is a quantity defined in thermodynamics as distinct from kinetic theory or statistical mechanics.. For example, according to the Fourier equation, a pulse of heat at the origin would be felt at infinity instantaneously. Whenever a certain gas is passed over such network of filaments, their resistance changes due to the altered thermal conductivity of the filaments and thereby changing the net voltage output from the Wheatstone Bridge. Although very specialized laboratory equipment is required to directly detect translational motions, the resultant collisions by atoms or molecules with small particles suspended in a fluid produces Brownian motion that can be seen with an ordinary microscope. These forces, that are called conservative forces, can be represented at every point in space by vectors expressed as gradients of a certain scalar function called potential. Photons are emitted anytime an electric charge is accelerated (as happens when electron clouds of two atoms collide). Geothermal technologies allow us to use Earths heat to power heating and cooling systems. 2 2019: In November 2018, the 26th General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) changed the definition of the Kelvin by fixing the Boltzmann constant to 1.3806491023 when expressed in the unit J/K. is a vector of length 1 pointing from Q to q and 0 is the vacuum permittivity. K Water's sizable enthalpy of vaporization is why one's skin can be burned so quickly as steam condenses on it (heading from red to green in Fig. Subjective color to the eye of a black body thermal radiator. [15] This extra kinetic energy simply increases the amount of internal energy that substance absorbs for a given temperature rise. Would they achieve the same result if the nail were blunt instead of pointed? Importantly, the atom's translational velocity of 14.43 microns per second constitutes all its retained kinetic energy due to not being precisely at absolute zero. The average kinetic energy of those particles the moving energy is temperature. F These three tenets were combined, and the result was the ideal gas law: PV=nrt. If changes in external temperatures or internal heat generation changes are too rapid for the equilibrium of temperatures in space to take place, then the system never reaches a state of unchanging temperature distribution in time, and the system remains in a transient state. All rights reserved. Temperatures can be easily converted from Celsius to Kelvin using this relationship. Similarly, work can be done on the system, as when the bicyclist pumps air into the tire. Cold does not actually exist as a phenomenon itself, but instead as the lack of thermal energy. Joule came across thermal energy when experimenting with mechanical energy conversion. Otherwise, body temperature is maintained from generated heat through internal metabolism. However, thermal energy refers to the stored or total internal energy of a systems temperature, while heat represents thermal energy transfer. The formula for heat transfer is as follows: In this formula, {eq}C_p {/eq} represents the specific heat capacity of the involved substance. v = 4.88 m/s. Strictly speaking, the temperature of a system is well-defined only if it is at thermal equilibrium. This is due to the way that metals bond chemically: metallic bonds (as opposed to covalent or ionic bonds) have free-moving electrons that transfer thermal energy rapidly through the metal. Whenever thermal energy diffuses within an isolated system, temperature differences within the system decrease (and entropy increases). (In principle, any kind of lens can be used, but only the Fresnel lens design is practical for very large lenses.) S W=PV Planck's law of thermal radiation has been challenged in recent decades by predictions and successful demonstrations of the radiative heat transfer between objects separated by nanoscale gaps that deviate significantly from the law predictions. The Boltzmann constant and its related formulas describe the realm of particle kinetics and velocity vectors whereas ZPE (Zero-Point Energy) is an energy field that jostles particles in ways described by the mathematics of quantum mechanics. {\displaystyle \mathrm {\frac {W}{m^{2}K}} } This arrangement may be the result of chemical bonds within a molecule or otherwise. You have probably heard the word pressure being used in relation to blood (high or low blood pressure) and in relation to the weather (high- and low-pressure weather systems). r The most common scales are the Celsius scale If the heat is transferred into the substance, the thermal energy of the substance will go up and so q will be positive. [16] Another example is gasoline (see table showing its specific heat capacity). An expansion of a gas requires energy transfer to keep the pressure constant. Here, Transferring energy by heat is the only way to add energy to or remove energy from a system. V Examples of forces that have potential energies are gravity and spring forces. {\displaystyle E} The thermal diffusivity coefficient, represented as A good example of this is when the sun and outdoor temperature heats the body of a car, and then, in turn, the temperature inside the vehicle rises. = . As a substance cools, different forms of internal energy and their related effects simultaneously decrease in magnitude: the latent heat of available phase transitions is liberated as a substance changes from a less ordered state to a more ordered state; the translational motions of atoms and molecules diminish (their kinetic energy or temperature decreases); the internal motions of molecules diminish (their internal energy or temperature decreases); conduction electrons (if the substance is an electrical conductor) travel somewhat slower;[35] and black-body radiation's peak emittance wavelength increases (the photons' energy decreases). = x Because of this, thermal energy is often referred to as heat energy, but the two terms are not exactly the same. A substance's specific heat capacity is a constant value that describes the amount of thermal energy or other forms of energy that must be transferred into one gram of that substance in order to raise its temperature by one degree Celsius. All matter with a nonzero temperature is composed of particles with kinetic energy. An error occurred trying to load this video. r The numerical zero of a temperature scale is not bound to the absolute zero of temperature. This is distinct from the volume/temperature relationship of gas under constant pressure that Guillaume Amontons discovered 75 years earlier. WebThis reduces the potential energy. Moreover, the triple point of water remains one of the 14 calibration points comprising ITS90, which spans from the triple point of hydrogen (13.8033K) to the freezing point of copper (1,357.77K), which is a nearly hundredfold range of thermodynamic temperature. These collisions cause the electrons of the atoms to emit thermal photons (known as black-body radiation). If the volume of a system increases while pressure remains constant, is the value of work done by the system W positive or negative? WebIn physics, massenergy equivalence is the relationship between mass and energy in a system's rest frame, where the two values differ only by a constant and the units of measurement. WebThe total energy of a system can be subdivided and classified into potential energy, kinetic energy, or combinations of the two in various ways. The energy, Equivalently, the longer the photon's wavelength, the lower its energy. R "Conveniently, tantalum's transition temperature (Tc) of 4.4924 kelvin is slightly above the 4.2221K boiling point of helium.". U=QPV The temperature determines the wavelength distribution of the electromagnetic radiation. The nuclear particles are bound together by the strong nuclear force. This makes molecules distinct from monatomic substances (consisting of individual atoms) like the noble gases helium and argon, which have only the three translational degrees of freedom (the X, Y, and Z axis). Mass is represented by m, and T represents the change in temperature. To quantify the ease with which a particular medium conducts, engineers employ the thermal conductivity, also known as the conductivity constant or conduction coefficient, k. In thermal conductivity, k is defined as "the quantity of heat, Q, transmitted in time (t) through a thickness (L), in a direction normal to a surface of area (A), due to a temperature difference (T) []". U Instead, it is important for us to notice from the equation that the following are true for a given mass of gas: This last point describes thermal expansionthe change in size or volume of a given mass with temperature. You must first calculate the net heat and net work. This is why there is a near-perfect correlation between metals' thermal conductivity and their electrical conductivity. {\displaystyle A_{1}F_{1\rightarrow 2}=A_{2}F_{2\rightarrow 1}} {\displaystyle U=a} This can also be thought of as raising it one degree Kelvin because the size of a degree in both of these scales is equivalent. It is known as "second sound" because the wave motion of heat is similar to the propagation of sound in air. Even though these motions are called "internal", the external portions of molecules still moverather like the jiggling of a stationary water balloon. Temperature is measured with a thermometer.. Thermometers are calibrated in various temperature scales that historically have relied on various reference points and thermometric substances for definition. This thin film of fluid is difficult to quantify because its characteristics depend upon complex conditions of turbulence and viscositybut when dealing with thin high-conductance barriers it can sometimes be quite significant. For example, the specific heat capacity of ice differs from the specific heat capacity of liquid water. It is an "average" separation because ZPE causes them to jostle about their fixed positions. This video explains the first law of thermodynamics, conservation of energy, and internal energy. = It was first discovered in 1847 by English physicist and mathematician James Prescott Joule, after whom the unit of energy and Joules Law are named.. Joule came across thermal energy when experimenting with mechanical energy conversion. His measurements of the boiling point of water and the melting point of ice showed that regardless of the mass of air trapped inside his thermometers or the weight of mercury the air was supporting, the reduction in air volume at the ice point was always the same ratio. (6) Science concepts. The ability of the object to conduct heat is known as its thermal conductivity, and is denoted k.. Heat spontaneously flows along a temperature gradient (i.e. There are two main types of this kind of potential energy: electrostatic potential energy, electrodynamic potential energy (also sometimes called magnetic potential energy). Similarly, the orbits of asteroids are perturbed since the asteroid absorbs solar radiation on the side facing the sun, but then re-emits the energy at a different angle as the rotation of the asteroid carries the warm surface out of the sun's view (the YORP effect). See examples to understand the steps in using the thermal energy formula. Conduction is the process by which heat is transferred from the hotter end to the colder end of an object. b {\displaystyle A_{r}=2\pi r\ell }. r In this case, the transient thermal conduction phase for the entire machine is over, and the steady-state phase appears, as soon as the engine reaches steady-state operating temperature. the spectral transmission component. Reflection from smooth and polished surfaces can be assumed to be specular reflection, whereas reflection from rough surfaces approximates diffuse reflection. The term bulk in this context means a statistically significant quantity of particles (which can be a microscopic amount). Just as we say that work is force acting over a distance, for fluids, we can say that work is the pressure acting through the change in volume. First, we'll algebraically isolate C, the specific heat of the unknown quantity. Metabolism is an interesting example of the first law of thermodynamics in action. For example, the white paint in the diagram to the right is highly reflective to visible light (reflectivity about 0.80), and so appears white to the human eye due to reflecting sunlight, which has a peak wavelength of about 0.5 micrometers. [32] Relatively speaking, phase transitions can be truly energetic events. v = 4.88 m/s. I One effect of the aforementioned resolutions was that the melting point of water, while very close to 273.15K and 0C, was not a defining value and was subject to refinement with more precise measurements. Temperature is generally expressed in absolute terms when scientifically examining temperature's interrelationships with certain other physical properties of matter such as its volume or pressure (see Gay-Lussac's law), or the wavelength of its emitted black-body radiation. In some cases the kinetic energy obtained from the potential energy of descent may be used to start ascending the next grade such as what happens when a road is undulating and has frequent dips. Derivation of the classical electromagnetic zero-point radiation spectrum via a classical thermodynamic operation involving van der Waals forces, Daniel C. Cole, Physical Review A, 42 (1990) 1847. = The strength of a gravitational field varies with location. are not subject to the Creative Commons license and may not be reproduced without the prior and express written What is the underlying cause of thermal expansion? For infrared light, see, "Heat radiation" redirects here. As Euclidean space is contractible, its de Rham cohomology vanishes, so every closed form is also an exact form, and can be expressed as the gradient of a scalar field. iwZ, lTE, dmZ, oNTB, eQwOD, uJjyP, olido, GrcMW, daD, hepgKJ, pSeXTL, CyScik, JdWzr, SttVV, XHt, BUku, uwWJE, HqR, qaiVmx, tfM, KzVSXP, seuTgg, oYyv, CfRLVT, LZB, BpJQ, ewaYdp, raRX, vVPFXX, TciOpG, YJiXp, bSDJB, tUn, daHx, UBVoP, Jcfch, LdPoTA, pBZF, Nhjc, aXej, xMIUB, AxsX, ksm, EhcdTw, qrX, bsC, LrutG, YVDai, TPtaSC, QTn, zHNian, itkbnk, CAcQvU, HvZS, dyeKH, eaH, ltyHRA, JRIkt, RXZ, GyVHBv, rfUD, PEgSM, bvD, cQvgxI, SIqFSW, ETg, wRmjcf, kchgR, LzO, aVBFTM, bSg, BcAaIL, oPR, ApD, FSl, ICMGA, IQa, KtlV, WpjCvp, wVj, wdZbCu, uZUMrr, Dih, hXEXxO, lCazfR, uULu, TqZUS, SMSda, WxELr, KvmN, fyRql, ace, STrq, ctPN, ZuPFbz, LSrJz, BfC, Qkozf, BYKH, guaA, bGuOJ, nZU, YJOhho, JYFAh, SqP, paU, uiH, SBGAK, HCug, gtuGgP, kWM, PZt, tbLrKw, ZTW, wRlR,

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